Tokophobia Symptoms and Treatments for Childbirth Fear

Tokophobia Symptoms and Treatments for Childbirth Fear Phobias Symptoms and Diagnosis Print Tokophobia: Fear of Childbirth and Pregnancy By Kendra Cherry facebook twitter Kendra Cherry, MS, is an author, educational consultant, and speaker focused on helping students learn about psychology. Learn about our editorial policy Kendra Cherry Medically reviewed by Medically reviewed by Steven Gans, MD on April 24, 2019 Steven Gans, MD is board-certified in psychiatry and is an active supervisor, teacher, and mentor at Massachusetts General Hospital. Learn about our Medical Review Board Steven Gans, MD Updated on August 01, 2019 More in Phobias Symptoms and Diagnosis Causes Treatment Types In This Article Table of Contents Expand Symptoms Causes How Common Is Tokophobia? Tokophobia vs. PTSD Treatments Steps to Take View All Back To Top Tokophobia is the fear of pregnancy and childbirth. Women who have this phobia have a pathological fear of giving birth, and will often avoid becoming pregnant or giving birth altogether. This fear may lead women to avoid becoming pregnant, even though they want to have children or to opt for a Caesarean section in order to avoid vaginal birth. Tokophobia may occur in women who have never given birth to a child, but it may also affect women who have had prior traumatic birth experiences. Pregnancy and childbirth are major events in many women’s lives. While it can be a time of great joy, it can also be a source of stress and anxiety. Women often worry about the normal pain of childbirth and about the possibility of something going wrong. These are all normal concerns that almost all pregnant women experience to some degree. The normal anxieties that accompany bringing a child into the world are often dealt with using medical help, education, social support, and self-help strategies. Sometimes, however, this fear can become pathological and so severe that women will avoid becoming pregnant or giving birth altogether. Symptoms Tokophobia is a type of specific phobia, which is an anxiety disorder in which people feel an irrational and unreasonable amount of fear about a specific object or situation. Symptoms of tokophobia can include sleep disturbances, panic attacks, nightmares, and avoidance behaviors. Other symptoms might include: Feelings of dread at the thought of pregnancy and birthAnxiety and depressionExtreme fear of birth defects, stillbirth, or maternal deathInsistence on a Caesarean section for their birth Women may sometimes avoid any sexual activity out of fear of becoming pregnant. Those who do become pregnant may be more likely to request an elective c-section, feel greater trauma surrounding the birth, and may even have difficulty bonding with her baby. Men can also experience tokophobia. Researchers have found that men with tokophobia often have a severe fear regarding the health and safety of their partner and child. This fear tends to center on concerns over labor and delivery, medical treatments, decision-making, finances, and parental capabilities. Causes Tokophobia can develop due to a number of causes. Some factors that may contribute to its development can include a fear of the unknown, loss of control and privacy, past sexual abuse, fear of pain, a fear for the life of the infant, and/or a lack of trust in medical practitioners. Uncertainty over the labor and birth process can also come into play, as can the fear of birth-related complications such as preeclampsia and death. In addition, if a woman has poor social support, this can contribute to or worsen her fear of childbirth. There are two different types of tokophobia: Primary tokophobia occurs in women who have never experienced birth. It may begin during adolescence, although it can also occur after a woman has become pregnant. It may also be seen in girls and women who have been sexually assaulted or raped. Medical exams during pregnancy and childbirth may also trigger flashbacks of the original trauma.Secondary tokophobia occurs in women who have previously experienced pregnancy and birth. It is often the result of traumatic labor and birth. However, it can also occur in women who had normal, non-traumatic births, as well as women who have experienced miscarriage, stillbirth, pregnancy termination, or failed fertility treatments. Researchers have suggested a number of explanations to account for the development of tokophobia. Some of these including hearing about traumatizing accounts of childbirth experiences from other women, fear of inadequate pain management, and pre-existing psychiatric conditions such as anxiety and depression. How Common Is Tokophobia? It is completely normal to have fears and concerns about pregnancy and childbirth. Having a certain degree of fear can actually be beneficial in some ways since it prompts women to seek maternal care and advice in order to cope with these concerns. Such fear is actually quite common, with as much as 80 percent of pregnant women feeling some degree of anxiety and worry over things such as pain, health, and safety during birth. While such worries are the norm, the majority of women are able to cope with these concerns by learning more about the labor and delivery process, talking to other women, and consulting with their pregnancy care providers. In some instances, however, this fear can become so severe and debilitating that it may be diagnosed as tokophobia. It is unclear just how common tokophobia may be. Some research suggests that rates range somewhere between 2 and 15 percent, although there is evidence suggesting that as many as 20 to 25 percent of women may experience severe and debilitating symptoms of childbirth-related fears. Further Research In another study looking at prevalence rates, researchers estimated that only about 0.032 percent of women experience tokophobia. They note that there are important distinctions between fear of childbirth and tokophobia, although the two are often conflated. Fear of childbirth involves a continuum of fearful feelings and thoughts related to giving birth. Normal levels of this fear tend to be relatively low, while severe levels can affect a womans day-to-day functioning. Differences in the estimates of prevalence rates for tokophobia may differ based upon how the condition was defined by researchers. Women with relatively moderate levels of fear might be lumped in with women experiencing severe anxiety, and some women may have been misdiagnosed. Tokophobia vs. PTSD An estimated 3 percent of women develop posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) following childbirth. This rate goes up among women in high-risk groups. Symptoms of PTSD following birth can include flashbacks, hypervigilance, and nightmares about the event. Women are sometimes diagnosed with secondary tokophobia following traumatic childbirth when they actually have symptoms of PTSD. It is also not uncommon for postnatal PTSD or tokophobia to be misdiagnosed as postpartum depression. Distinguishing between these diagnoses is important in order to ensure appropriate and effective treatment. Treatments It is important that women with tokophobia receive treatment in order to ensure that both the mother and child are healthy. This can include receiving support from the womans obstetrician in coordination with a psychologist or psychiatrist. A mental health professional can help address some of the underlying reasons why the disorder may have developed in the first place, including pre-existing depression or anxiety conditions. Maternal health care providers can offer reassurance, education, and appropriate health care so that women feel that their fears surrounding the birth process and adequately addressed. Support Finding sources of social support is important. For many, simply knowing that there are people who are there to help them can be comforting. Studies have found that offering support to pregnant women with a severe fear of pregnancy and birth can be an effective strategy for minimizing symptoms. Such support can strengthen womens sense of self-efficacy and even reduce the number of elective c-sections. Effective support can occur one-on-one or through support groups. Such support is often provided by people that women already know, such as family member or friends, but it can also come from obstetricians, midwives, psychologists, or counselors. Having a positive birth experience has also been shown to reduce the fear of childbirth. One study found that women who felt that they were in control of their bodies and were well-informed about the progress of labor were more likely to show a decrease or elimination of fear symptoms. Many women seek out the guidance and support of other women who have already had experience with bearing children, often including mothers, sisters, family members, and friends. Research has shown that providing support to women with a severe fear of birth resulted in a 50 percent reduction in cesarean rates. Therapy Cognitive behavior therapy and psychotherapy can also be effective in the treatment of tokophobia. CBT can be a good choice due to its short-term duration and focus on specific symptoms. One study looked at the effectiveness of internet-based cognitive behavioral therapy treatments in comparison to standard care. While the researchers found that both approaches led to reductions in fear, those in the CBT group showed a greater reduction in symptoms at one-year postpartum. However, only a small number of women completed the CBT treatment modules, which the researchers suggested indicated low feasibility and acceptance of this treatment approach. Medications Medications may also be used either alone or in conjunction with other treatment approaches to treat underlying depression, anxiety, or other psychiatric disorders. Treatment for tokophobia takes a multidisciplinary approach, incorporating both psychological and obstetric support. Having a birth plan in place that acknowledges a womans concerns can be helpful. Knowing that she will receive pain management upon request and is capable of choosing her method of delivery can be particularly important. Steps to Take If you feel that a significant fear of childbirth and pregnancy might be affecting your life, there are steps that you can take to get the help you need. Discuss your feelings with your doctor or midwife. Some anxiety is normal, and they may be able to provide reassurance and further assistance. Begin forming a birth plan. Talk to your doctor about your wants and needs, including your options for pain management and giving birth. Having a plan can help you feel more empowered and in control. Talk to people you trust. Knowing that there are people who understand your fears and are there to offer support can help reduce anxiety. Avoid childbirth “horror stories.” Hearing such stories can exacerbate your tokophobia. Instead, seek out good medical information and focus on positive experiences with childbirth. If people try to share stories that you do not want to hear, it is perfectly acceptable to ask them to stop. Take a prenatal support class. Learning about what happens during childbirth and what you can do to manage labor pain can help you feel more capable as your approach giving birth. Talk to a mental health professional. If your fear is interfering with your life, ask your doctor to refer you to a psychiatrist, psychologist, counselor, or another mental health provider who can offer further advice and assistance. A Word From Verywell While tokophobia is rare, it can have a major impact on a woman’s life and functioning. People who have this severe fear of childbirth may avoid becoming pregnant even if they do want to have a child. Proper support and treatment can address the fears that women may have surrounding pregnancy and childbirth, making it possible to manage symptoms and have a healthy pregnancy and positive birth experience. Be sure to talk to your doctor if you are concerned that you may have symptoms of tokophobia. 50 Tips for a Healthy Pregnancy

Tokophobia Symptoms and Treatments for Childbirth Fear

Tokophobia Symptoms and Treatments for Childbirth Fear Phobias Symptoms and Diagnosis Print Tokophobia: Fear of Childbirth and Pregnancy By Kendra Cherry facebook twitter Kendra Cherry, MS, is an author, educational consultant, and speaker focused on helping students learn about psychology. Learn about our editorial policy Kendra Cherry Medically reviewed by Medically reviewed by Steven Gans, MD on April 24, 2019 Steven Gans, MD is board-certified in psychiatry and is an active supervisor, teacher, and mentor at Massachusetts General Hospital. Learn about our Medical Review Board Steven Gans, MD Updated on August 01, 2019 More in Phobias Symptoms and Diagnosis Causes Treatment Types In This Article Table of Contents Expand Symptoms Causes How Common Is Tokophobia? Tokophobia vs. PTSD Treatments Steps to Take View All Back To Top Tokophobia is the fear of pregnancy and childbirth. Women who have this phobia have a pathological fear of giving birth, and will often avoid becoming pregnant or giving birth altogether. This fear may lead women to avoid becoming pregnant, even though they want to have children or to opt for a Caesarean section in order to avoid vaginal birth. Tokophobia may occur in women who have never given birth to a child, but it may also affect women who have had prior traumatic birth experiences. Pregnancy and childbirth are major events in many women’s lives. While it can be a time of great joy, it can also be a source of stress and anxiety. Women often worry about the normal pain of childbirth and about the possibility of something going wrong. These are all normal concerns that almost all pregnant women experience to some degree. The normal anxieties that accompany bringing a child into the world are often dealt with using medical help, education, social support, and self-help strategies. Sometimes, however, this fear can become pathological and so severe that women will avoid becoming pregnant or giving birth altogether. Symptoms Tokophobia is a type of specific phobia, which is an anxiety disorder in which people feel an irrational and unreasonable amount of fear about a specific object or situation. Symptoms of tokophobia can include sleep disturbances, panic attacks, nightmares, and avoidance behaviors. Other symptoms might include: Feelings of dread at the thought of pregnancy and birthAnxiety and depressionExtreme fear of birth defects, stillbirth, or maternal deathInsistence on a Caesarean section for their birth Women may sometimes avoid any sexual activity out of fear of becoming pregnant. Those who do become pregnant may be more likely to request an elective c-section, feel greater trauma surrounding the birth, and may even have difficulty bonding with her baby. Men can also experience tokophobia. Researchers have found that men with tokophobia often have a severe fear regarding the health and safety of their partner and child. This fear tends to center on concerns over labor and delivery, medical treatments, decision-making, finances, and parental capabilities. Causes Tokophobia can develop due to a number of causes. Some factors that may contribute to its development can include a fear of the unknown, loss of control and privacy, past sexual abuse, fear of pain, a fear for the life of the infant, and/or a lack of trust in medical practitioners. Uncertainty over the labor and birth process can also come into play, as can the fear of birth-related complications such as preeclampsia and death. In addition, if a woman has poor social support, this can contribute to or worsen her fear of childbirth. There are two different types of tokophobia: Primary tokophobia occurs in women who have never experienced birth. It may begin during adolescence, although it can also occur after a woman has become pregnant. It may also be seen in girls and women who have been sexually assaulted or raped. Medical exams during pregnancy and childbirth may also trigger flashbacks of the original trauma.Secondary tokophobia occurs in women who have previously experienced pregnancy and birth. It is often the result of traumatic labor and birth. However, it can also occur in women who had normal, non-traumatic births, as well as women who have experienced miscarriage, stillbirth, pregnancy termination, or failed fertility treatments. Researchers have suggested a number of explanations to account for the development of tokophobia. Some of these including hearing about traumatizing accounts of childbirth experiences from other women, fear of inadequate pain management, and pre-existing psychiatric conditions such as anxiety and depression. How Common Is Tokophobia? It is completely normal to have fears and concerns about pregnancy and childbirth. Having a certain degree of fear can actually be beneficial in some ways since it prompts women to seek maternal care and advice in order to cope with these concerns. Such fear is actually quite common, with as much as 80 percent of pregnant women feeling some degree of anxiety and worry over things such as pain, health, and safety during birth. While such worries are the norm, the majority of women are able to cope with these concerns by learning more about the labor and delivery process, talking to other women, and consulting with their pregnancy care providers. In some instances, however, this fear can become so severe and debilitating that it may be diagnosed as tokophobia. It is unclear just how common tokophobia may be. Some research suggests that rates range somewhere between 2 and 15 percent, although there is evidence suggesting that as many as 20 to 25 percent of women may experience severe and debilitating symptoms of childbirth-related fears. Further Research In another study looking at prevalence rates, researchers estimated that only about 0.032 percent of women experience tokophobia. They note that there are important distinctions between fear of childbirth and tokophobia, although the two are often conflated. Fear of childbirth involves a continuum of fearful feelings and thoughts related to giving birth. Normal levels of this fear tend to be relatively low, while severe levels can affect a womans day-to-day functioning. Differences in the estimates of prevalence rates for tokophobia may differ based upon how the condition was defined by researchers. Women with relatively moderate levels of fear might be lumped in with women experiencing severe anxiety, and some women may have been misdiagnosed. Tokophobia vs. PTSD An estimated 3 percent of women develop posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) following childbirth. This rate goes up among women in high-risk groups. Symptoms of PTSD following birth can include flashbacks, hypervigilance, and nightmares about the event. Women are sometimes diagnosed with secondary tokophobia following traumatic childbirth when they actually have symptoms of PTSD. It is also not uncommon for postnatal PTSD or tokophobia to be misdiagnosed as postpartum depression. Distinguishing between these diagnoses is important in order to ensure appropriate and effective treatment. Treatments It is important that women with tokophobia receive treatment in order to ensure that both the mother and child are healthy. This can include receiving support from the womans obstetrician in coordination with a psychologist or psychiatrist. A mental health professional can help address some of the underlying reasons why the disorder may have developed in the first place, including pre-existing depression or anxiety conditions. Maternal health care providers can offer reassurance, education, and appropriate health care so that women feel that their fears surrounding the birth process and adequately addressed. Support Finding sources of social support is important. For many, simply knowing that there are people who are there to help them can be comforting. Studies have found that offering support to pregnant women with a severe fear of pregnancy and birth can be an effective strategy for minimizing symptoms. Such support can strengthen womens sense of self-efficacy and even reduce the number of elective c-sections. Effective support can occur one-on-one or through support groups. Such support is often provided by people that women already know, such as family member or friends, but it can also come from obstetricians, midwives, psychologists, or counselors. Having a positive birth experience has also been shown to reduce the fear of childbirth. One study found that women who felt that they were in control of their bodies and were well-informed about the progress of labor were more likely to show a decrease or elimination of fear symptoms. Many women seek out the guidance and support of other women who have already had experience with bearing children, often including mothers, sisters, family members, and friends. Research has shown that providing support to women with a severe fear of birth resulted in a 50 percent reduction in cesarean rates. Therapy Cognitive behavior therapy and psychotherapy can also be effective in the treatment of tokophobia. CBT can be a good choice due to its short-term duration and focus on specific symptoms. One study looked at the effectiveness of internet-based cognitive behavioral therapy treatments in comparison to standard care. While the researchers found that both approaches led to reductions in fear, those in the CBT group showed a greater reduction in symptoms at one-year postpartum. However, only a small number of women completed the CBT treatment modules, which the researchers suggested indicated low feasibility and acceptance of this treatment approach. Medications Medications may also be used either alone or in conjunction with other treatment approaches to treat underlying depression, anxiety, or other psychiatric disorders. Treatment for tokophobia takes a multidisciplinary approach, incorporating both psychological and obstetric support. Having a birth plan in place that acknowledges a womans concerns can be helpful. Knowing that she will receive pain management upon request and is capable of choosing her method of delivery can be particularly important. Steps to Take If you feel that a significant fear of childbirth and pregnancy might be affecting your life, there are steps that you can take to get the help you need. Discuss your feelings with your doctor or midwife. Some anxiety is normal, and they may be able to provide reassurance and further assistance. Begin forming a birth plan. Talk to your doctor about your wants and needs, including your options for pain management and giving birth. Having a plan can help you feel more empowered and in control. Talk to people you trust. Knowing that there are people who understand your fears and are there to offer support can help reduce anxiety. Avoid childbirth “horror stories.” Hearing such stories can exacerbate your tokophobia. Instead, seek out good medical information and focus on positive experiences with childbirth. If people try to share stories that you do not want to hear, it is perfectly acceptable to ask them to stop. Take a prenatal support class. Learning about what happens during childbirth and what you can do to manage labor pain can help you feel more capable as your approach giving birth. Talk to a mental health professional. If your fear is interfering with your life, ask your doctor to refer you to a psychiatrist, psychologist, counselor, or another mental health provider who can offer further advice and assistance. A Word From Verywell While tokophobia is rare, it can have a major impact on a woman’s life and functioning. People who have this severe fear of childbirth may avoid becoming pregnant even if they do want to have a child. Proper support and treatment can address the fears that women may have surrounding pregnancy and childbirth, making it possible to manage symptoms and have a healthy pregnancy and positive birth experience. Be sure to talk to your doctor if you are concerned that you may have symptoms of tokophobia. 50 Tips for a Healthy Pregnancy

Emily Dickinson - 1547 Words

The Poet Who Watched the World Through Her Window Brionna Gardenhire 9th Grade Honors Literature Mr. Phillip Grabowskii November 13, 2012 Emily Dickinson was born on December 10, 1830, in Amherst, Massachusetts. She was the oldest daughter of Edward Dickinson, a successful lawyer, member of Congress, and for many years treasurer of Amherst College, and of Emily Norcross Dickinson, a timid woman. Lavinia, Dickinson’s sister, described Emily as perfectly well amp; contented—She is a very good child amp; but little trouble. (Sewall 324) She was graduated from Amherst Academy in 1847, which was founded by her grandfather, Samuel Dickinson (Sewall, 337, Wolff, 19–21). She attended Mount Holyoke Female Seminary in South Hadley in†¦show more content†¦This period is known as her most prolific period of writing. She also underwent treatments for a painful eye condition, now thought to be iritis, with Boston ophthalmologist Henry W. Williams. 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How Reiki Is Considered As A Form Of Healing Essay

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Developed in the 1970’s by Dora Kunz a psychic healer and Dr. Dolores Krieger, PhD, RN (Natural Medicine, 2015) therapeutic touch is generally not well accepted in Western medical practices due to lack of research and supporting effectiveness in evidence. Understanding what TT is and how to utilize it in practice is important in deliveringRead MoreHealth Spa6419 Words   |  26 Pagestheir mind and body needs can be met. The business will be set up as a partnership with Steve Long, Debby Long, and Linda Hill-Chinn owning equal portions of the operation. Products and Services SoulSpace offers a wide variety of mind and body healing services and products. The salon aspect of the business will provide both males and females with any type of hair styling services. The spa business is devoted to providing holistic methods of massage, body work, and energy work. This is all done

Understanding Topics for Opinion Essay for College

Understanding Topics for Opinion Essay for College All paper and essay writing guidelines are alike in that you're making a statement about some matter and introducing briefly what will be discussed throughout the remainder of the paper. The ending of your essay is intended to tie your whole bit of writing together and show your readers that you effectively proved why they need to agree with you on the subject. Your persuasive essay can be dependent upon whatever you experience an opinion or you are able to give a very clear argument about it. In many instances when you're requested to compose an opinion essay or paragraph, your teacher will offer you a prompt. Evidence for the argument can be offered in the shape of a personal example for essays that are dedicated to local or individual difficulties. Each paragraph needs to be focused on a single idea, and ought to contain all of the information and quotes that demonstrate that idea. It should be more specific than the last, introducing new pieces of information, examples, and detailed evidence. Writing the closing paragraph of your article may be one of the most essential elements of all essay writing guidelines, because you need to leave your reader with a very clear impression of your stance, the problem, and any evidence that's involved. The Ultimate Topics for Opinion Essay for College Trick If you're authentic, nobody can write the exact essay as you! A thesis statement comes from the new information you bring in the essay. So far as essay structure goes, a 4 or 5 paragraph essay based on the number of points you are going to want to argue is an excellent start. The thesis se ntence is normally located in the last sentence of your introduction. Develop your thesis for the paper that you're going to be writing. Let's work out how to compose an essay that will stick out among the other students' submissions. The thesis should state what you mean to prove and give an overview of the evidence you want to utilize in your essay. Writing the body of the paper is basically the structural integrity of your entire paper or essay. You ought to go over either side of the issues surrounding the discussion essay topic, so guarantee that you've got access to good research that supplies pertinent info. Conduct research on your subject of choice and investigate all the many diverse ways it can be looked at. As you're researching, you're educating yourself on a particular topic. Prewriting In the prewriting phase, you will need to brainstorm about this issue and the most important idea. Regardless of what topic you ultimately choose, be certain to bring a very clear position on it. You will need lots of thoughts and topics to write about in the event that you wish to keep the content creature fed. Create an extremely basic outline, either on a sheet of scrap paper or only in your head, to assist you decide in what order to present your ideas within the body of the essay. Nevertheless, there are a lot of intriguing ideas I have yet to test out. Reading the essay backwards is a fantastic means to catch such mistakes. While preparing to compose an essay from scratch, it is necessary to understand what to expect and exact steps that you should take. Many folks feel scared and shy to jump in the fray, but on occasion the very best medicine for getting from the rut is to simply do it. You cannot write a great essay in a rush and a half before the exam end understand that you can't finish it. A central strategy in the college placement exam essay is to take whole benefit of all of the time that's allotted. On the flip side, the amount of your essay may ride on your teacher's requirements. The point isn't to learn all fatal mistakes, but little ones as a way to conserve time on the exam. Each paragraph in the essay demands specific information for readers to adhere to a logical stream of information. There's no particular limit on the quantity of words have to be written in the essay Writing Part, but it isn't necessary to write more than 350 words because examiners usually devote exactly the same limit of time on every test work. In the instance of a later, you might get technical and utilize specific environmental terms. Attempt to compare what two unique texts say about your principal idea.

In 1993 worldwide illegal copying of domestic and Essay Example For Students

In 1993 worldwide illegal copying of domestic and Essay international software cost $12.5 billion to the software industry,with a loss of $2.2 billion in the United States alone. Estimates showthat over 40 percent of U.S. software company revenues are generatedoverseas, yet nearly 85 percent of the software industrys piracylosses occurred outside of the United States borders. The SoftwarePublishers Association indicated that approximately 35 percent of thebusiness software in the United States was obtained illegally, which30 percent of the piracy occurs in corporate settings. In a corporatesetting or business, every computer must have its own set of originalsoftware and the appropriate number of manuals. It is illegal for acorporation or business to purchase a single set of original softwareand then load that software onto more than one computer, or lend, copyor distribute software for any reason without the prior writtenconsent of the software manufacturer. Many software managers areconcerned with the legal compliance, along with asset m anagement andcosts at their organizations. Many firms involve their legaldepartments and human resources in regards to software distributionand licensing. Information can qualify to be property in two ways; patent lawand copyright laws which are creations of federal statutes, pursuantto Constitutional grant of legislative authority. In order for thegovernment to prosecute the unauthorized copying of computerizedinformation as theft, it must first rely on other theories ofinformation-as-property. Trade secret laws are created by state law,and most jurisdictions have laws that criminalize the violations of atrade-secret holders rights in the secret. The definition of a tradesecret varies somewhat from state to state, but commonly have the sameelements. For example, AThe information must be secret, Anot of publicknowledge or of general knowledge in the trade or business, a courtwill allow a trade secret to be used by someone who discovered ordeveloped the trade secret independently or if the holder does nottake adequate precautions to protect the secret. In 1964 the United States Copyright Office began to registersoftware as a form of literary expression. The office based itsdecision on White-Smith Music Co. v. Apollo , where the Supreme Courtdetermined that a piano roll used in a player piano did not infringeupon copyrighted music because the roll was part of a mechanicaldevice. Since a computer program is textual, like a book, yet alsomechanical, like the piano roll in White-Smith, the Copyright Officegranted copyright protection under the rule of doubt. In 1974, Congress created the Natural Commission on NewTechnological Uses (CONTU) to investigate whether the evolvingcomputer technology field outpaced the existing copyright laws andalso to determine the extent of copyright protection for computerprograms. CONTU concluded that while copyright protection shouldextend beyond the literal source code of a computer program, evolvingcase law should determine the extent of protection. The commissionalso felt copyright was the best alternative among existingintellectual property protective mechanisms, and CONTU rejected tradesecret and patents as viable protective mechanisms. The CONTU reportresulted in the 1980 Computer Software Act, and the report acts asinformal legislative history to aid the courts in interpreting theAct. In 1980 The Copyright Act was amended to explicitly includecomputer programs. Title 17 to the United States Code states that itis illegal to make or to distribute copies of copyrighted materialwithout authorization, except for the users right to make a singlebackup copy for archival purposes. Any written material (includingcomputer programs) fixed in a tangible form (written somewhere i.e. printout) is considered copyrighted without any additional action onthe part of the author. Therefore, it is not necessary that a copy ofthe software program be deposited with the Copyright Office inWashington, D.C. for the program to be protected as copyrighted. With that in mind then a copyright is a property right only. In orderto prevent anyone from selling your software programs, you must ask acourt (federal) to stop that person by an injunction and to give youdamages for the injury they have done to you by selling the program. The Software Rental Amendments Act Public Law 101-650) wasapproved by Congress in 1990, this Act prohibits the commercialrental, leasing or lending of software without the express writtenpermission of the copyright holder. An amendment to Title 18 to theUnited States Code was passed by Congress in 1992. This amendment. Known as Public Law 102-561 made software piracy a federal offense,and instituted criminal penalties for copyright infringement ofsoftware. The penalties can include imprisonment of up to five years,fines up to $250,000 or both for unauthorized reproduction ordistribution of 10 or more copies of software with a total retailvalue exceeding $2,500 or more. Under United States law duplicating software for profit,making multiple copies for use by different users within anorganization, and giving an unauthorized copy to someone else isprohibited. Under this law if anyone is caught with the piratedsoftware, an individual or the individuals company can be tried underboth civil and criminal law. A Civil action may be established forinjunction, actual damages (which includes the infringer=s profits) orstatutory damages up to $100,000 per infringement. The criminalpenalties for copyright infringement can result in fines up to$250,000 and a jail term up to five years for the first offense andten years for a second offense or both. When software is counterfeitor copied, the software developer loses their revenue and the wholesoftware industry feels the effect of piracy. All software developersspend a lot of time and money in developing software for public use. Aportion of every dollar spent in purchasing original software isfunneled back into r esearch and development of new software. Softwarepiracy can be found in three forms: software counterfeiting, which isthe illegal duplication and sale of copyrighted software in a formthat is designed to make it appear to be a legitimate program; Harddisk loading, whereby computer dealers load unauthorized copies ofsoftware onto the hard disks of personal computers, which acts as anincentive for the end user to buy the hardware from that particulardealer; and downloading of copyrighted software to users connected bymodem to electronic bulletin boards and/or the Internet. When softwareis pirated the consumer pays for that cost by new software and/orupgrade version being very expensive. Federal appellate courts in theU.S. have determined that operating systems, object code and softwarecotained in ROMs are protected by copyright, and some lower federalcourts have also determined that microcode (the instructions set onmicroprocessor chips), and the look and feel of computer screens issu bject to copyright protection. Which leads to the problems of thewidespread development of multimedia applications that has brought outmajor problems in clearing copyright for small elements of text,images, video and sound. The United States Government has been an active participant inprotecting the rights of the software industry. When the BusinessSoftware Alliance (BSA) conducts a raid, Federal Marshals or local lawenforcement officials participate also. An organization known as theSoftware Publishers Association (SPA) is the principal tradeassociation of the PC software industry. SPA works closely with theFBI and has also an written enforcement manual for the FBI to helpthem investigate pirate bulletin board systems and organizations(audits). With the help of the FBI, the result of enforcement actionsresulted in recoveries from anti-piracy actions totaling $16 millionsince the program started in 1990. Macbeth Essay SummarySPA has created a program that companies can use to helpdiscover and correct problems before they result in legal actions,fines and also negative publicity. The eight point program is asfollows:1. Appoint a software manager to implement and monitor all aspects ofcompany software policy. 2. Implement a software codes of ethics for everyone to adhere to. Theethics should state that copyrighted software, except for backup andarchival purposes, is a violation of the law. 3. Establish a procedure for acquiring and registering software. Determine your companies software needs, evaluate software packages,and also have supervisors approve the plans. Keep the lines ofcommunication open. 4. Establish and maintain a software log. The log should state thedate of when the software was acquired, the registration of it, serialnumber, network version, location of where the software is in use,where the original is, licensing agreement and the location of theoriginal disks. 5. Conduct periodic audits or on a as needed basis comparing thesoftware log and/or other purchase records. 6. Establish a program to educate and train your employees about everyaspect of software and its uses. 7. Maintain a library of software licenses and provide users withcopies of the agreement. 8. Having done the above seven points, the company can benefit byhaving obtained software legally, receive full documentation,technical support when needed and also upgrade notices. Patents do not cover specific systems, instead they coverparticular techniques that can be used to build systems or particularfeatures that systems can offer. Patent grants the inventor a 17 yearmonopoly on its use. Once a technique or feature is patented, it maynot be used in a system without the permission of the patent-holder even if it is implemented in a different way. Since a computer programusually uses several techniques and provides many features, it caninfringe many patents at once. A computer program is built out ofideal mathematical objects whose behavior is defined, not modeledapproximately, by abstract rules. An example of this is BorlandInternational, Inc. complained in the 1st Federal District Court gaveLotus Development Corp. the benefit of patent protection to Lotus1-2-3 menu commands and their order, but failed to require Lotus tomeet the requirements of patent law, including novelty, examinationand contribution to the prior art. The Supreme Court sided with the1st Circuit decision that one entity cannot own the user interface toprograms. Meaning such as file formats, menu structures andprogramming languages. Software license agreements emerged as the most popular meansof protection of proprietary rights in computer software. They coexistwith other forms of intellectual property rights as patent andcopyright. Software license agreements serve several functions intransactions involving the transfer of computer technology. One of themost important legal functions is the protection of the proprietaryrights of the licenser in the transferred software. Other functionsinclude controlling the revenue generated by licensed software anddetermining the rights and responsibilities of the parties regardingthe performance of the licensed technology. Issue related to thesefunctions include the applicability of Article 2 of the UniformCommercial Code, including offer and disclaimer of warranties,determining the appropriate types of licenses to utilize, such assingle users/CPU licenses, Site/enterprise licenses andnetwork/concurrent licenses. Trade secret, copyright and patent laware emailprotected forms of protection in the sense that they may existindependently of any underlying business transactions and do notnecessarily require any transfer of intellectual property from oneparty to another. Whereas, the need for a license agreement usually arises asone of the contractual forms of protection when the underlyingbusiness transaction involves the transfer of intellectual property,such as computer software. Transactions involving the transferof computer software are subject to both federal and state laws. Generally, state law governs contractual and trade secrets aspects ofthe transaction, while federal law governs aspects related to patent,copyright and antitrust issues. Each state has its own version of adoctrine of a trade secret, the common thread through thesestate-specific laws is that if you show that you are seriouslytreated information as confidential and that the confidentialinformation helped your competitive position, you can stop others fromusing it if the information was improperly acquired by them, and evencollect damages from the wrongdoers. A computer is useless without software. The two types ofsoftware typically found on a computer are operating systems softwareand application software. Operating system software providesinterface that makes it easier to develop programs for the system byreducing the amount of code that must be written. The operating systemacts as an interface between the computer hardware, applicationprograms and the end user. Application software consists of one ormore computer program that fulfill a specific function for the userlike word processing, bookkeeping or financial analysis. Two legalcases recently within the last few years has brought to light thecontroversy regarding the copyright protection of software elements. Until 1992, most of the federal courts followed the decision inWhenlan v Jaslow Dental Laboratory as a precedent of similar cases. Whenlan, a small software company wrote a accounting program forJaslow Dental Laboratory company. Jaslow rewrote the software to runon personal computers and proceeded to sell the product. The softwarewas identical to Whenlans in the data structures, logic, and theprogram structure, except for the source code. Jaslow argued that theduplicated elements were part by the of the idea not the expression. The court in response felt that the data structures, logic, and theprogram structure comprised to make a single function of a computerprogram, therefore copyright protection should be given to thoseelements also. In 1992, this protection was weakened by Computer Associatesv. Altai, Inc. , when Altai a software developer was accused ofcopying various modules of a software package developed by ComputerAssociates which controlled the running of applications on IBMmainframes. The court rejected Whelan=s premise that a computerprogram embodies one function because programs are made up ofsub-routines that contain their own idea. The court recognized thiswould narrow the scope of software copyright protection and found thisin accordance with Congressional intent of computer programs withcopyright. This resulted in why currently software copyright is not asbroad as it once was. BibliographyBrandel, William, Licensing stymies users,URL:http://www.viman.com/license/license.html#policy, VimanSoftware, Inc., 1994. Business Software Alliance, Software Piracy and the Law,URL:http://www.bsa.org/bsa/docs/soft_pl.html, Business SoftwareAlliance, 1995. Software Publishers Association, SPA Anti-Piracy Backgrounder,URL:http://www.spa.org/piracy/pi_back.htm, Software PublishersAssociation, 1995.

The Life Story Of Nikita Khrushchev Essays - Old Bolsheviks

The Life Story of Nikita Khrushchev His story is something like a fairy tale. A humble young peasant boy, born to a world of famine and poverty with 100 million peasants just like him, works and fights his way up the political ladder of Russia to one day become its most powerful force, simultaneously holding the offices of Premier of the U.S.S.R. and First Secretary of the Communist Party. It seems incredible, but it should be remembered that Nikita Khrushchev did not accomplish this feat without much sacrifice and hard work on his part. Coming from virtually nothing, he struggled for many years to rise among the ranks in Revolutionary Russia before he achieved the position of a widely-loved ruler and powerful, determining force in international affairs. And although, in the end, he was cast down from this climactic position, it was not before this loquacious and personable man had employed his keen and incisive mind toward making many gains for and improvements in twentieth-century Russia. To truly understand how humble and common his beginnings were, one must understand the situation in Russia toward the end of the nineteenth century. Serfdom had only recently been abolished, and, as a result, there was a severe shortage of land and widespread poverty and illiteracy. Only the strongest and cleverest were able to make a living from their new-found freedom; most just struggled to survive. It was among this majority, on April 17, 1894, that Nikita Sergeievich Khrushchev was born. As a boy, he lived in Kalinovka, a poor villiage in the Ukraine, in an izba, a mud hut with a thatched roof, with his grandfather, a large family, and the family's animals. His father, it is said, lived his life with the ambition to buy a horse, but he never saved enough money to do so. In the end, the family was forced to give up their home and move to Yuzovka in another part of the Ukraine. Throughout his childhood, Nikita was forced to work to survive. His education amounted to only two or three years in the village school, for he was forced to go to work herding cows when he was nine. Following that, he was em- ployed as many things, including a farm hand, a factory worker, and finally a miner in the coal pits. It was at this time that his determination to better himself was first made apparent, for, rather than letting himself be destined forever to work in the pits, he offered his services in all areas of the job, including the development of pit-heads, elevators for the mines. This was also the time in which the young Khrushchev's rebellious nature began to surface, but rather than to striking or union-organizing, it was applied toward politics. It all began with a visit to the mines in 1917 by a man called Kaganovich, who was sent to recruit miners for the Revolution. Nikita, who was 23 and viewed this man as both a romantic figure and an opportunity to break from his social boundaries, joined his Bolshevik group and, by doing so, took his first of many steps in his forthcoming rise to political power. Soonafter, Khrushchev, a loyal but not very active Bolshevik member, became involved with the Communist party as well. Prior to this point, he had been exempt from military service due to his indispensibility in the local coal industry. Also, he had been responsible for a family, as he had married his wife, Galina, during his years in the coal mines, and now had two children (Leonid and Julia), which made him want to remain near Yuzovka. However, in 1919, that rebellious, power-seeking inner sense of Nikita's got the best of him, and he went off to join the Red Army. When the war ended, Khrushchev, whose main objective had been to emerge as a politician until he found how difficult it was to compete with the "higher-born," at least had succeeded in proving himself to be a loyal and useful figure. Soonafter, he returned home with the task of organizing a local Communist party. When he arrived back in Yuzovka, however, he found the area, along with much of the Ukraine, suffering due to a great famine. Peasants were forced to eat bark, grass, leather and one another to survive, and many died, including Khrushchev's wife. It was a very sad and difficult time for Nikita, but he retaliated against his depression by devoting himself wholeheartedly toward the reorganization of Russia. At once he set about to restore local factories